Battle of Tours

The Battle of Tours began on October 10, of the year 732. It was an important event in European history.


The Battle of Tours, or Battle of Poitiers, was in 732. This battle was between the Muslims and France. The Frankish leader was Charles Martel, with twenty to thirty thousand men against the Muslim leader Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, who had eighty thousand men.


The Battle of Tours took place because of the Muslim invasion. The Muslims had conquered Egypt, Syria, and North Africa before they continued on to their attempt to conquer Western Europe, and to bring an end to the Christian Europe. Charles Martel, the King of France (Mills54), chose to fight the Muslims from higher ground, making his enemy charge up the slope in order to attack the Franks. This is one of the few times that infantry was able to defeat cavalry.


Charles Martel, or The Hammer, was the victor in the Battle of Tours on October 10, 732. The loses on both sides are not known, however, some of the chronicles estimate the loses of the Franks to be about one thousand five hundred, and the Muslims to have had ten thousand loses. The victory of Martel helped stop the invading Muslims and helped the Western European Christian states to grow, or develop.


The Muslims moved through Egypt Syria and North Africa as an unstoppable force. However, when they arrived at Tours in 732, they were stopped by the King of France and his army (Cantor 136), on October 10, 732.


Cantor, Norman F. The Civilization of the Middle Ages. HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.; New York, NY, 1963-93.

Mills, Dorthy M.A. The Middle Ages. G.P. Putnam's Sons; New York, 1935.

Louis XIV

Louis XIV was born in September 1638 and was the ruler of France for seventy-two years. Louis XIV died in September 1715.


Louis XIV was born on September 5, 1638. He was the son of Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. Louis' father died when he was only four years old. However, he was not allowed to rule until he was thirteen years of age.


During his reign, Louis XIV, or the Sun King, made a court in Versailles, the area that inspired Charles III of Naples and Sicily, hired Luigi Vanvitelli to create the design of his palace(Della Croce, Sacerdoti, 170). He also "brought absolute monarchy to its height." (source). Louis XIV ruled over England for seventy-two years, which was one of the longest reigns of his period.


Louis XIV,died on September 1, 1715. During his funeral, the words "'Dieu seul, mes feres,' intoned Bishop Massilon, 'Dieu seul est grand' (my brothers, God alone is great)", were spoken to start the "funeral oration"(Davies, 627). After his death one of his great grandsons inhereted the throne, becoming Louis XV.

LouisXIV was born on September 5, 16 1638. He reigned for seventy-two years, and died on September 1, 1715.



Davie, Norman. Europe a Histor. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc.: New York, NY, 1996.

Della Croce, Maria Laura, Annie Sacerdoti. The Great Book of Italy. Barnes & Nobel: New York, 2004.

The Black Death

The Black Death lasted from 1348-1350 AD. The Black Death had a great effect on the population of Europe.


The Black death, or Bubonic Plague, was a disease that swept through Europe, infecting twenty-five to fifty percent of its population by the time it receded. This plague had a great impact on the labor, since it was killing off many of Europe's citizens (Cantor 563). The plague caused its victims to have headaches, fevers and chills. They would also break out with buboes, which tended to form on the neck, armpits and the groin area. The Black death ravaged Europe from 1348 to 135.

The plague is believed to have come out of Asia, and then was carried by the Mongols into Europe through war and trade. many people believed that the plague was an airborne disease, so they used strong scents that overpowered the smell of the dead. However, the citizens of Europe didn't know the real carrier of this disease.


The carriers of this disease were rats. A person would get infected when a flea, carried by a rat, would bite them. The plague can also be spread through contact with an infected person or animal. It could be spread by merely touching an animal or infected person.



The Black Death lasted from 1348-1350 AD. It is believed that the Black plague came out of Asia and was spread by the Mongols. The cause of the plague is believed to be the flea bite. Because of this major outbreak of disease, there were not many areas that were untouched by the plague (Davies 411).

Cantor F. Norman. The Civilization of the Middle Ages: A Completely Revised and Expanded Edition of Medieval History. Harper Collins, 1963-93.

Davies Norman. Europe: A History. Oxford University Press Inc; 200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY, 1996.

The Tudor dynasty

The Tudor dynasty began in 1485 (Blum Cameron Barnes, 61). The Tudor Dynasty was established after the War of Roses.


Henry VII became the king of England by defeating the Yorkists in the War of Roses. He was then married to Elizabeth of York. Through this marriage the Lancastrians and the Yorkists were gathered under one banner. Under Henry VII England became very strong.


While Henry VII governed England as a business man, Henry VIII is known for many accomplishments in the military, personal, religious and political areas. During his reignHenry made himself the 'supreme head' of Engalnd's church(Koenigsberger 60). Henry VIII is also known for his wives, Catherin of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymore, Anne of Cleves, Kathrin Howard and Kathrin Parr, and his horrible actions toward them.


Elizabeth I was also very important to the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth earned her people's love during her reign. She also succeeded in the political area and chose her statesmen well. During her reign she also crushed rebellions and fought against invasions, and encouraged art and literature in her kingdom.


The Tudor dynasty began in 1485 (Blum Cameron Barnes, 61). Henry VII, Henry VIII and Elizabeth I played very important roles in making England a strong state in Europe.

Blum, Jerome, Rondo Cameron, Thomas G. Barnes. The European World: A History. Little, Brown and Company, 1966.

H. G. Koenigsberger. Early Modern Europe 1500-1789: A History of Europe. Longman Inc.; New York, 1987.

Forth Crusade

The Sack of Constantinople occurred in the Fourth Crusade, which was started by Pope Innocent III, in 1204. Constantinople was then ruled by the Latin rulers until 1261.


Constantinople was sacked on April 12, 1204 by the Crusaders. This happened during the Fourth Crusade when Alexius IV was killed by the Greeks. The Crusaders then attacked Constantinople.


The Crusaders' actions were horrific. They destroyed churches, palaces and burned houses within the city. They wreaked havoc upon the convents and many pieces of art and literature were destroyed in the fires.


After Constantinople was captured it fell apart in the expanse of ten years. So even though the Crusaders succeeded in destroying and looting Constantinople of all it's treasure, they were basically the demise of the city of Constantinople.


The Sack of Constantinople occurred in the Fourth Crusade, which didn't reach the holy land, and instead stopped at Constantinople (Mills 196). The Crusaders pillaged the city of Constantinople (Lewis 377), and destroyed it.


Lewis David Levering. God's Crucible: Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.: 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY, 2008.

Mills Dorothy M.A. The Middle Ages. G.P. Putnam's Sons: New York, 1935.

Saladin

Saladin led the Muslims in the the Third Crusade (Santosuosso 216). Although he was part of the Crusades he was known for his merciful nature by both sides of the war.


Saladin was born in the year 1138. He was the son of Najm ad-Din Ayyub. Saladin had more interest in religious pursuits, but his life changed when he joined his uncle, who was a military commander, when he was thirty-one years of age, he was not only the vizier of Egypt, but also the commander of the troops of Syria.


Saladin wanted to bring the Muslims of Palestine, Macedonia and Syria under his rule. In 1187, Saladin led a conquest to reconquer Jerusalem, that had been the Crusader's eighty eight years earlier. However, this time the city was conquered without as much blood loss among the soldiers of the two armies.


Although the Assassins tried to kill him, Saladin was able to evade them. Saladin was a very merciful ruler, and was very well known among the Christians and his own people(Mills 191). He died in 1193. He had a fever and over a few days he slipped into unconsciousness and eventually died.


Saladin was a famous among his people as well as the Christians (Mills 191). He was a merciful ruler even though he did take part in the Crusades. He eventually died in 1193.


Mills, Dorthy. The Middle Ages. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935.

Santosuosso, Antonio. Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare. Westview Press, 2004.

Justianian

Justinian was born on May 11 in 483. He became emperor in 527 and died in 565.

Justinian was born on My 11, 483. His uncle was Justin 1. Justin 1 was crowned emperor in 518, and Justinian, became one of his advisers. However, in 527, Justin 1 died, and Justinian 1 was crowned emperor.


The Emperor Justinian had a wonderful administrative ability(Mills 28), was very ambitious and strove to reconquer most of the western empire. Justinian also organized the Roman Law (Blum, Cameron, Barnes 12). The Corupus Iurus Civilis- the Justinian Code- was finished in 529. The Justinian Code consisted of the Public and Private Laws. The Private Law was made up of three categories, the Natural Law, Law of nations and the Civil Law.


Justinian eventually died on November 14, 565. when Justinian died he died a poor emperor. Although the Byzantine Empire was a center of trade, all of the Empire's money had gone to improvements and war funds.


Justinian was born on May 11 in 483. He became emperor in 527 and during his reign he organized the Justinian Code. Justinian 1 finally died in 565.


Mills, Dorthy. The Middle Ages. G. P. Putnam's Sons:
New York, 1935.

Jerome, Blum, Cameron, Rondo, Barnes, Thomas G. The European World: A History. Little, Brown and Company: Boston/Toronto, 1966.